Scaling up from epidemiology to biogeography: local infection patterns predict geographical distribution in fish parasites

Aim We investigated how the spatial distribution of parasites, measured as either their geographical range size or their frequency of occurrence among localities, relates to either their average local abundance or the variance in their abundance among localities where they occur. Location We used data on the abundance of 46 metazoan parasite species in 66 populations of threespine sticklebacks, Gasterosteus aculeatus, from Europe and North America. Methods For each parasite species, frequency of occurrence was calculated as the proportion of stickleback populations in which it occurred, and geographical range size as the area within the smallest possible polygon delimited using the coordinates of the localities where it occurred. Generalized linear models were used to assess how these two measures of spatial distribution were influenced by several predictor variables: geographical region (North America or Europe), life cycle (simple or complex), average local abundance, the coefficient of variation in abundance across localities, and median prevalence (proportion of infected hosts within a locality). Results Our analyses uncovered four patterns. First, parasites in North America tend to have higher frequencies of occurrence among surveyed localities, but not broader geographical ranges, than those in Europe. Second, parasite species with simple life cycles have wider geographical ranges than those with complex cycles. Third, there was a positive relationship between average abundance of the different parasite species and their frequency of occurrence, but not between average abundance and geographical range size. Fourth, the coefficient of variation in abundance covaried positively with both the frequency of occurrence and geographical range size across the different parasite species. Thus, all else being equal, parasites showing greater site‐to‐site variability in abundance occur in a greater proportion of localities and over a broader geographical area than those with a more stable abundance among sites. Main conclusions Local infection patterns are linked with large‐scale distributional patterns in fish parasites, independently of host effects, such that local commonness translates into regional commonness. The mechanisms linking parasite success at both scales remain unclear, but may include those that maintain the continuum between specialist and generalist parasites. Regardless, the observed patterns have implications for the predicted changes in the geographical distributions of many parasites in response to climate change.     

A new species of Galearis (Orchidinae: Orchidaceae) from Sichuan,China

A new species, Galearis huanglongensis Q.W.Meng & Y.B.Luo, is described and illustrated. It is similar to Galearis cyclochila (Franch. & Sav.) Soó and Galearis diantha (Schltr.) P.F.Hunt, but differs in having a short spur, two elliptical lateral stigma lobes and distinctly separated bursicles. This new species is known only from the type locality, the Huanglong Valley, Songpan County, western Sichuan, China, growing amongst mosses under alpine shrubs at an elevation of about 3000 m. Based on two years of observations of its population size, the species was categorized as critically endangered CR (B1a, B2a) according to the World Conservation Union (IUCN) Red List Categories and Criteria, Version 3.1. The micromorphology of pollinia and seeds was observed by scanning electron microscopy and compared with that of G. cyclochila and G. diantha. The results supported G. huanglongensis Q.W.Meng & Y.B.Luo as a new species. © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2008, 158 , 689–695.     

Local Competition Between Foraging Relatives: Growth and Survival of Bruchid Beetle Larvae

Kin selection theory states that when resources are limited and all else is equal, individuals will direct competition away from kin. However, when competition between relatives is completely local, as is the case in granivorous insects whose larval stages spend their lives within a single seed, this can reduce or even negate the kin-selected benefits. Instead, an increase in competition may have the same detrimental effects on individuals that forage with kin as those that forage with non-kin. In a factorial experiment we assessed the effects of relatedness and competition over food on the survival and on fitness-related traits of the bruchid beetle Callosobruchus maculatus. Relatedness of competitors did not affect the survival of larvae. Larval survival substantially decreased with increasing larval density, and we found evidence that beetles maturing at a larger size were more adversely affected by competition, resulting in lower survival rates. Furthermore, females showed a reduction in their growth rate with increasing larval density, emerging smaller after the same development time. Males increased their growth rate, emerging earlier but at a similar size when food was more limited. Our results add to the growing number of studies that fail to show a relationship between relatedness and a reduction in competition between relatives in closed systems, and emphasize the importance of the scale at which competition between relatives occurs.     

Validation of density–elasticity relationships for finite element modeling of human pelvic bone by modal analysis

In total hip arthroplasty and particularly in revision surgery, computer assisted pre-operative prediction of the best possible anchorage strategy for implant fixation would be a great help to the surgeon. Computer simulation relies on validated numerical models. In the current study, three density–elasticity relationships (No. 1–3) from the literature for inhomogeneous material parameter assignment from CT data in automated finite element (FE) modeling of long bones were evaluated for their suitability for FE modeling of human pelvic bone. Numerical modal analysis was conducted on 10 FE models of hemipelvic bone specimens and compared to the gold standard provided by experimental modal analysis results from a previous in-vitro study on the same specimens. Overall, calculated resonance frequencies came out lower than measured values. Magnitude of mean relative deviation of numerical resonance frequencies with regard to measured values is lowest for the density–elasticity relationship No. 3 (−15.9%) and considerably higher for both density–elasticity relationships No. 1 (−41.1%) and No. 2 (−45.0%). Mean MAC values over all specimens amount to 77.8% (No. 1), 78.5% (No. 2), and 83.0% (No. 3). MAC results show, that mode shapes are only slightly influenced by material distribution. Calculated resonance frequencies are generally lower than measured values, which indicates, that numerical models lack stiffness. Even when using the best suited (No. 3) out of three investigated density–elasticity relationships, in FE modeling of pelvic bone a considerable underestimation of model stiffness has to be taken into account.     

Disentangling invasion processes in a dynamic shipping-boating network

The relative importance of multiple vectors to the initial establishment, spread and population dynamics of invasive species remains poorly understood. This study used molecular methods to clarify the roles of commercial shipping and recreational boating in the invasion by the cosmopolitan tunicate, Botryllus schlosseri. We evaluated (i) single vs. multiple introduction scenarios, (ii) the relative importance of shipping and boating to primary introductions, (iii) the interaction between these vectors for spread (i.e. the presence of a shipping-boating network) and (iv) the role of boating in determining population similarity. Tunicates were sampled from 26 populations along the Nova Scotia, Canada, coast that were exposed to either shipping (i.e. ports) or boating (i.e. marinas) activities. A total of 874 individuals (c. 30 per population) from five ports and 21 marinas was collected and analysed using both mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene (COI) and 10 nuclear microsatellite markers. The geographical location of multiple hotspot populations indicates that multiple invasions have occurred in Nova Scotia. A loss of genetic diversity from port to marina populations suggests a stronger influence of ships than recreational boats on primary coastal introductions. Population genetic similarity analysis reveals a dependence of marina populations on those that had been previously established in ports. Empirical data on marina connectivity because of boating better explains patterns in population similarities than does natural spread. We conclude that frequent primary introductions arise by ships and that secondary spread occurs gradually thereafter around individual ports, facilitated by recreational boating.     

What paths do advantageous alleles take during short‐term evolutionary change?

Combining experimental evolution with whole‐genome resequencing is a promising new strategy for investigating the dynamics of evolutionary change. Published studies that have resequenced laboratory‐selected populations of sexual organisms have typically focused on populations sampled at the end of an evolution experiment. These studies have attempted to associate particular alleles with phenotypic change and attempted to distinguish between different theoretical models of adaptation. However, neither the population used to initiate the experiment nor multiple time points sampled during the evolutionary trajectory are generally available for examination. In this issue of Molecular Ecology, Orozco‐terWengel et al. (2012) take a significant step forward by estimating genome‐wide allele frequencies at the start, 15 generations into and at the end of a 37‐generation Drosophila experimental evolution study. The authors identify regions of the genome that have responded to laboratory selection and describe the temporal dynamics of allele frequency change. They identify two common trajectories for putatively adaptive alleles: alleles either gradually increase in frequency throughout the entire 37 generations or alleles plateau at a new frequency by generation 15. The identification of complex trajectories of alleles under selection contributes to a growing body of literature suggesting that simple models of adaptation, whereby beneficial alleles arise and increase in frequency unimpeded until they become fixed, may not adequately describe short‐term response to selection.     

Human organisms begin to exist at fertilization

Eugene Mills has recently argued that human organisms cannot begin to exist at fertilization because the evidence suggests that egg cells persist through fertilization and simply turn into zygotes. He offers two main arguments for this conclusion: that ‘fertilized egg’ commits no conceptual fallacy, and that on the face of it, it looks as though egg cells survive fertilization when the process is watched through a microscope. We refute these arguments and offer several reasons of our own to think that egg cells do not survive fertilization, appealing to various forms of essentialism regarding persons, fission cases, and a detailed discussion of the biological facts relevant to fertilization and genetics. We conclude that it is plausible, therefore, that human organisms begin to exist at fertilization – or, at the very least, that there are grounds for thinking that they existed as zygotes which do not apply to the prior egg cells. While this does not entail that human persons begin to exist at this point, it nevertheless has considerable significance for this latter question.     

An Efficient Timer and Sizer of Biomacromolecular Motions

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